World Migratory Bird Day is officially celebrated on the second Saturday of May in Canada and the US, and the second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. However, every day is Bird Day, and you can celebrate birds and host events any day of the year!

The 2025 poster, illustrated by Annamaria Savarino Drago of Mexico, features birds that depend on safe spaces. Look closely in the image to find the ways that you can create bird-friendly cities and communities. World Migratory Bird Day has its roots in two separate but related events: International Migratory Bird Day (IMBD), which began in 1993 in the Americas, and the inaugural World Migratory Bird Day in 2006 for the African-Eurasian region. The two were formally combined into a single, global event in 2018.

History :

• • 1993: The Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center and the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology founded the first International Migratory Bird Day (IMBD). The first event was hosted at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., as an educational campaign to raise awareness about migratory birds and their conservation needs.

• • 1995–2006: The IMBD program was directed by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The event was held on the second Saturday in May, corresponding with the peak of spring migration in North America.

• • Present: The program is coordinated by Environment for the Americas and has grown to involve hundreds of events and festivals each year. It is celebrated on the second Saturday in May in Canada and the U.S., and on the second Saturday of October in Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. 

World Migratory Bird Day (African-Eurasian region)

• • 2005: The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) started the “Migratory Waterbird Days” in Africa, Europe, and parts of Asia.
  • 2006: AEWA and the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) expanded the scope of the event to a global scale, launching the first official World Migratory Bird Day. The inaugural event was held in Kenya and coincided with a negative public perception that linked migratory birds to the spread of avian influenza. The campaign’s theme, “Migratory birds need our support now!,” aimed to counter this misinformation.
  • Global expansion: After its successful launch, World Migratory Bird Day gained popularity and expanded to more countries annually.

Unification into a global campaign

• • 2017: On October 26, officials from Environment for the Americas, CMS, and AEWA announced an official partnership to unite the two major migratory bird education campaigns.

• • 2018: The combined, single campaign adopted the name “World Migratory Bird Day.” To accommodate the differing migration seasons in the hemispheres, major celebrations are now organized twice a year: on the second Saturday of May and the second Saturday of October. 

Campaign today

Today, the unified World Migratory Bird Day continues to raise awareness of the ecological importance of migratory birds and advocate for their conservation. The campaign features a new conservation theme each year, focusing on issues such as:

By: Dr. Kaveh Farrokh

The article “Parthian Fortresses of Nysa” was originally posted by UNESCO. The photographs inserted below are from the Meros.org venue, with the descriptive captions and map of the Parthian Empire provided by Kavehfarrokh.com. The version printed below has also been slightly edited.

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Nisa was the capital of the Parthian Empire, which dominated this region of central Asia from the mid 3rd century BCE to the early 3rd century CE. As such it formed a barrier to Roman expansion, whilst at the same time serving as an important communications and trading centre, at the crossroads of north-south and east-west routes. Its political and economic power is well illustrated by the surviving remains, which underline the interaction between central Asian and Mediterranean cultures.

Map of the Parthian Empire in 44 BCE to 138 CE (Picture source: Farrokh, page 155, Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War-Персы: Армия великих царей-سایه‌های صحرا–). See also Military History and Armies of the Parthians …

The Parthian Fortresses of Nisa consist of two tells of Old and New Nisa, indicating the site of one of the earliest and most important cities of the Parthian Empire, a major power from the mid 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. They conserve the unexcavated remains of an ancient civilization which skillfully combined its own traditional cultural elements with those of the Hellenistic and Roman west. Archaeological excavations in two parts of the site have revealed richly decorated architecture, illustrative of domestic, state and religious functions. Situated at the crossroads of important commercial and strategic axes, this powerful empire formed a barrier to Roman expansion while serving as an important communication and trading centre between east and west, north and south.

A close-up of one of the sections of Nysa’s enduring Parthian system of architecture (Meros.org).

UNESCO Criteria

Criterion (ii): Nisa is situated at the crossroads of important commercial and strategic axes. The archaeological remains vividly illustrate the significant interaction of cultural influences from central Asia and from the Mediterranean world.

Criterion (iii): The Parthian Empire was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations of the ancient world, and a brilliant rival of Rome which prevented the expansion of the Roman Empire to the east. Nisa, the capital of the Parthian Empire, is the outstanding symbol of the significance of this imperial power.

A walled structure of one the chambers at Nysa(Meros.org). Later Sassanian architecture would also display especially thick walls and depending on the region, either bricks or stones could be used in their construction. For more on Parthian and Sassanian military architecture, consult Chapter 13 “Military Architecture”  in Armies of Ancient Persia: The Sassanians (2017).

The integrity and authenticity of the property, and also of the surrounding landscape, in terms of the size of the two tells and the siting of the capital at the foot of the Kopet-Dag mountains, are unquestionable. The two tells do not in any sense represent the original appearance of the Parthian capital, but their present appearance is due solely to natural erosion.

A meandering pathway towards a Nysa structure(Meros.org).

The site is gazetted as one of the 1,300 historical and cultural monuments of Turkmenistan. Nisa is also one of the eight State Historical and Cultural Parks (SHCP) that have been created to protect the most significant sites in Turkmenistan. A buffer zone has been established. The property comes within the provisions of the Bagyr town development plan. Serious efforts are still needed to set up an efficient preventive maintenance scheme that will ensure the survival of recently excavated parts of the site. A five-year plan has been formulated for 2006-2010, in order to ensure a better balance between the different activities (e.g. archaeology vis-à-vis conservation) and to combine and harmonize all the existing documents and strategies relating to the site.

Related posts:

1. Parthian Warrior Grave Accidentally Unearthed in 2020 during COVID-19 Burial
2. UNESCO: Takht-e Soleiman
3. UNESCO: Sassanian Archaeological Landscape of the Fars Region
4. Journal Article: A Unique Parthian Sword
5. Professor Shapour Shahbazi: The Parthian Army
6. Parthian site in Andika, Khuzestan discovered by Karamian Archaeological Team
7. Parthian horses and Parthian Horse Archers
8. Preserving the Buddhist Stupa Structure in Topdara, Afghanistan
9. Documentary Film Production: the UNESCO Sassanian Fortress in Darband
10. Structure of the Parthian Army (2016) – (۱۳۹۵) ساختار ارتش اشکانیان

For the last few weeks, the Islamic occupying government in Iran has been trying its best to entertain the people in some way. This “entertainment” approach, which first started with Khamenei’s “Iran, Iran, sing,” has now reached a point where they have begun holding celebrations in every city (and even, in mosques). We have observed that participants in these programs include both organized groups of government supporters and individuals from less privileged backgrounds. The latter, some who may harbor anti-government sentiments, still seem eager to attend events that offer some degree of freedom and enjoyment, something they may have long anticipated.

Astonishingly, this death-perpetuating government’s recent initiative is organizing public celebrations for people. For the past 46 years, this government has predominantly focused on mourning ceremonies, and its leaders have historically considered clapping a sin, only permitting it at weddings.

The shift towards promoting joy among the populace is a stark contrast to their established practices. Most importantly, for the past 46 years, this government has suppressed the celebration of important national events. Currently, young people are being held in prison simply for celebrating Cyrus the Great Day. This underscores the profound longing for freedom that persists within the country.

The government’s recent actions are not surprising when taking a look at history. It appears that when dictatorial regimes face popular unrest and are on the brink of collapse, they often attempt to transform public anger into a semblance of joy or celebration. Almost like a powerful painkiller, these celebrations are designed to temporarily calm the populace.

This approach may be new in our country because, not only during the Pahlavi era but even during the Qajar era, celebrations that were supported by the government, as in European and American countries, were only national celebrations and not celebrations to silence the voices of the opposition.

This type of recent strategy by the Islamic government is a reminder of past dictatorships, particularly the regimes in 20th-century Argentina and even Nazi Germany. In Nazi Germany, all cultural and artistic activities were managed under the direct supervision of the Nazi Party. I see parallels in how the Islamic government currently supervises cultural and artistic endeavors.

The Nazis not only eliminated Jewish composers and singers, but also supported and promoted their replacements from among their own composers and singers. This behavior is akin to the Islamic government, which, from the beginning, dismissed or forced the people’s favorite national singers and composers to leave the country and replaced them with composers and artists who supported it.

In dictatorial regimes such as those in South America and Nazi Germany, as the state became increasingly gripped by the fear of collapse, support for and expansion of the entertainment arts grew. Large-scale concerts, designed for maximum public impact, became increasingly frequent.

During the Second World War, while the crematoriums were busy massacring Jews and the prisons were full of opponents of the government, Hitler’s supporters organized large gatherings and concerts, with well-known Nazi figures (and sometimes even Hitler himself) participating in these types of events; the government allocated the most publicity to them.

I am one of those people who know that this strategy of the “death-perpetuating” government is not to pour “honey and sugar” into the tired souls of the people, but to silence their voices. These shows are not intended to uplift the spirits of the people but rather to suppress their voices, even if only for a short period.

However, I believe there is no need for concern. As long as the majority of our country’s population continues to suffer from poverty, hunger, and destruction, these shows will remain nothing more than a comedic diversion that will eventually burst and collapse like a balloon, taking the entire government with them.

September 7, 2025

NYAYANGA, KENYA—Around three million years ago, early hominins developed what is known as the Oldowan toolkit to work wood, pound plant material, or process animal carcasses. To create these specialized tools, our human ancestors used hammerstones to strike at stone cores and create sharp-edged flakes. Finding the right rocks was integral, as Oldowan tools needed to be shaped from stones that were strong, yet also brittle enough to easily flake. According to a statement released by the Leakey Foundation, new research suggests that early humans were surprisingly capable of identifying sources of suitable stones and transporting them over long distances. The evidence comes from the site of Nyayanga on Kenya’s Homa peninsula, where excavations uncovered a trove of fragmentary stone tools. Local rocks in the area were relatively soft, however, and would have resulted in poor utensils. Using geochemical and geological analysis, researchers determined that 2.6 million years ago, the site’s occupants routinely traveled around six miles to another site on the peninsula in order to procure better source material, and then carried those stones back with them to Nyayanga. This is the earliest evidence of early hominins moving significant rocks over long distances and predates other known instances by around 600,000 years. This marks a major milestone in the history of human evolution as it demonstrates ancient hominins’ ability to mentally map their environment and remember locations with high-quality stones. Read the original scholarly article about this research in Science Advances

The Sassanian Game-board of ‘Hashtpay

By: Dr. kaveh Farokh

The article below is written by Antonio Panaino and originally posted in the CAIS website hosted by Shapour Suren-Pahlav in London, England. Readers are also encouraged to consult/click the link “The Sassanian Era” 

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Name of a game from the Sassanian era which has not been precisely identified. The haštpay “eight feet” (more likely than aštapad) is mentioned together with other games in chapter 15 of the Xusraw ud Redag (ud pad Chatrang ud new-ardaxšî r ud haštpay kardan az hamahlan fraztar hom “and in playing chess, backgammon and the haštpay I am superior to my comrades” (Unvala, p. 16; Monchi-Zadeh, 1982, p. 65; Panaino, 1999, p. 51). Its name, as in the case of chess (Pahl. Ch < Skt. caturanµga-), is an Indian borrowing; it derives from Sanskrit astapada- (cf. pali atthapada), originally referring to a game-board of 8 x 8 little squares. Such a board was used for various games (Murray, 1913, pp. 35-40; 1952, pp. 129-36), one of them played, according to the Balabharata (II, 5, pp. 10-13), with red and white pieces and a pair of dice. In many other sources the astapada- was doubtless the chessboard and its name strictly associated with this game (MacDonell, p. 122; Jacobi, p. 228; Thomas, 1898, pp. 272; 1899, pp. 365; Thieme, 1984, p. 208).

A conjectural drawing by Ashkan H. (اشکان.ح) of a possible configuration of the Hashtpay game-board (Source: Public Domain).

From the Xusraw ud Redag it is clear that the Sassanian haštpay was distinguished from other popular games like chess and the variety of backgammon represented by new-ardaxšî r. The haštpay could perhaps be associated, according to Semenov (pp. 16-20, 131; but see Panaino, 1999, pp. 153-56, 189), with a game-board (with three lines of eight squares) recently discovered in Paikend and with another one represented on a later Sassanian silver cup with a different but apparently comparable form.

An Indian manuscript depicting Krishna and Radha playing chaturanga on an 8×8 Ashtāpada (Source: CAIS). For more see “Chess: An Indian or Iranian invention” …

Bibliography

Jacobi, “Über zwei ältere Erwähn-ungen des Schachspiels in der Sanskrit-Litteratur,” ZDMG 50, 1896, pp. 227-33.

A. MacDonell, “The Origin and Early History of Chess,” JRAS, 1898, pp. 117-41.

Monchi-Zadeh, “Xus-rôv i Kavâtân ut Rêtak,” in Monumentum Georg Morgenstierne, vol. II. Acta Iranica 22, Leiden, 1982, pp. 47-91.

J. R. Murray, A History of Chess, Oxford 1913. Idem, A History of Board-Games other than Chess, Oxford 1952.Panaino, La novella degli Scacchi e della Tavola Reale. Un’antica fonte orientale sui due gixochi da tavoliere piuà diffusi nel mondo euroasiatico tra Tardoantico e Medioevo e sulla loro simbologia militare e astrale. Testo pahlavi, traduzione e commento al Wiz-arišn î Chatrang ud nihišn î  new-ardaxšî r “La spiegazione degli scacchi e la disposizione della tavola reale,” Milano, 1999.

L. Semenov, Studien zur sogdischen Kultur an der Seidenstrasse, Wiesbaden, 1996.

Thieme, “Chess and Backgammon (Tric-Trac) in Sanskrit Literature,” in E. Bender, Indological Studies in Honor of W. Norman Brown, New Haven, 1962, pp. 204-16, reprinted in Kleine Schriften, Wiesbaden, 1984, pp. 413-25.

W. Thomas, “The Indian Game of Chess,” ZDMG, 52, 1898, pp. 271-72; 53, 1899, pp. 364-65.

M. Unvala, The Pahlavi Text “King Husrav and his Boy,” published with its Transcription, translation and copious notes, Paris, n.d.[/fusion_builder_column][/fusion_builder_row][/fusion_builder_container]

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1. 1. Burnt City: World’s oldest “Backgammon” Game?

1. 1. Chess: Iranian or Indian Invention?

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TELL EL-BURAK, LEBANON—Phoenician builders invented a type of waterproof plaster long before the Romans popularized it, according to the Greek Reporter. Archaeologists working at the site of Tell el-Burak in southern Lebanon recently uncovered a winemaking facility dating to between 725 and 600 b.c., the oldest known complex of its kind in the region. The structure features a large grape treading basin linked to a fermentation vat capable of holding about 1,188 gallons. Analysis of the basin’s surface indicated that it was coated in a special plaster that was mixed with crushed fragments of pottery, likely broken amphoras. The ceramic inclusions chemically reacted with the lime binder to create a pozzolanic material that was capable of setting and hardening even in wet conditions. “The presence of ceramic aggregates wasn’t just about recycling waste—it was a technological choice to produce water-resistant, durable plaster,” said University of Tübingen archaeologist Silvia Amicone. The new research has forced archaeologists to reevaluate the sophistication of Phoenician engineers and to redate the origins of hydraulic plaster technology, which was largely considered a Roman innovation. Read the original scholarly article about this research in Scientific Reports. 

ULPIANA, KOSOVO—Vox News Albania reports that Kosovan Minister of Culture Hajrulla Çeku announced that a team of archaeologists uncovered a rare mosaic inscription linked with the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (reigned a.d. 527–565) at the site of Ulpiana. This find comes two years after the discovery of another inscription from the same time period. Ulpiana was a major urban center in the Roman province of Dardania and flourished from the first to the sixth century a.d. The city was flattened by an earthquake around a.d. 518 but was rebuilt by Justinian, a native of the area, during his reign. The first inscription records Ulpiana’s refounding as the city of “Justiniana Secunda,” while the second, newly uncovered mosaic bears a dedication to the Byzantine emperor and his wife Theodora upon the construction of a new church. Officials said that the discovery not only confirms Justinian’s commitment to rebuilding both the civic and religious monuments of the city, but highlights his close historical connections to the site and the region.

ROC DE LES ORENTES, SPAIN—Millennia ago, a local community living high in the Catalan Pyrenees mountains near present-day Girona buried their dead in a cave over a period of two or three centuries. Excavations in recent years at the site, which is known today as Roc de les Orentes, have uncovered more than 6,000 human bone fragments from about 60 different individuals. Analysis indicates that many of the robust skeletons bear signs of intense physical activities associated with the challenging lifestyle of living and herding in the Pyrenees. However, according to a La Brújula Verde report, the cave has also recently become a 4,000-year-old crime scene. Archaeologists identified a human rib with a flint arrowhead embedded in it. The weapon had struck the individual from behind. Some evidence of violence had previously been detected at the site, such as fractures and cut marks on bones, but the researchers were unsure whether these were part of local funerary traditions. The new find leaves no doubt that there was interpersonal conflict. Surprisingly, though, the bone displayed signs of regeneration and healing, hinting that the victim may not have immediately succumbed to their wounds

Mani: Forgotten Prophet of Ancient Persia

By Dr. Kaveh Farokh

Mani was born in 216 CE near Ctesiphon (capital of the Sassanian Empire) either in the town of Abrumya or Mardinu in the Babylonian district of Nahr Kutha.  He was of Iranian Parthian origin, with his father Patik (Babak?) hailing originally from Hamedan before moving to the Mesopotamian plains. Mani’s mother Mariam may have been of the Kamsakaran Parthian clan of Armenia (see for example the Chinese Compendium, Henning, 1943, p.52; reprinted 1977, II, p.115).

A portrait of the prophet Mani (216-274 or 277 CE) (Source: Great Thoughts Treasury). Mani viewed himself as the final seal of the prophets, completing the previous religious messages of Zoroaster, Christ and the Buddha. His theological views, especially with respect to evil and its relation to material existence incurred the wrath of not only the Zoroastrian Magi of his Persian homeland but also that of the later Christians and Emperors of China.

Mani’s parents are believed to have been members of the Elcesaites (Jewish-Christian) sect (at least as reported in the Cologne Mani-Codex). Mani claimed to have received revelations by a “Twin Spirit” when he was first 12 years of age and then twelve years later at the age of 24. He was then inspired to travel and spread his Messianic vision throughout the world. It is believed that he traveled for four decades.

The spread of Manichaeism was paralleled by the rise of the influence of Zoroastrianism and Christianity. Mani did win some support among the upper class nobles of the Sassanian nobles (Wuzurgan), but ultimately failed to win over Bahram I (r. 217-274 CE) who had the prophet enchained and imprisoned. Mani is believed to have died sometime in 274 or 277 CE. Undoubtedly the “orthodox” Magi, notably Grand Magus Kartir, were displeased with the theology of Mani’s messages.

Coin depicting Sassanian king Bahram I (r. 271-274 CE) (Source: Public Domain). Reversing his late father Shapur I’s (r. 240-270 CE) tolerance toward Mani and his religion, Bahram shackled and imprisoned the prophet after he “lost” a theological debate with the Zoroastrian Magi in the royal court. Mani is believed to have passed away in 274 or later in 277.

What was the basis of Mani’s message? More precisely, what was in his message that inspired such repression in not only Persia, but also in Rome, China and later in the Balkans and France where Manichean ideas spread?

First, Mani was in a sense, the bringer of an international religion, one that was meant not just for Persia, but for all of humanity. He believed that the original teachings of Zoroaster, Buddha and Christ were incomplete (see Coyle, J.K. (2009). Manichaeism and Its Legacy, Brill, p. 13). Mani viewed his creed as the “Religion of Light” for the entire world (Coyle, 2009, p.13). He also claimed that the original teachings of Judeo-Christian religions (esp. Jesus Christ), Zoroaster and the Buddha had been corrupted.

Sixteenth century painting by Ali Shir-Navai of Mani the painter presenting one of his drawings to Bahram Gur (Source: Voice of America).

The second theological aspect of Mani was in his dissection of the origin of evil. Mani denied the Omnipotence of God; he viewed two equal but opposing powers locked in conflict. The notion of opposing powers is reminiscent of the “Good versus Evil” dualism of  Zoroastrianism. In this dynamic, each individual is a battleground between good and evil. But Mani’s version of evil diverges widely from Zoroastrianism, which views the good as superior to evil. Mani, also in contrast to Zoroastrianism, believed that the world had been created by a Satanic demiurge. Therefore, all material existence is seen as evil, such that salvation entails one’s complete liberation from material existence. This is not the case with Zoroastrianism where creation and material existence are not seen as “evil“. Mani, however believed that “particles of light” from the “Kingdom of Light” had been trapped in material form. Thus, in Mani’s view, even marriage and the birth of children was considered “evil“. Mani explained the birth of children as the process in which “particles of light” were bought down into “evil” material existence as the result of the union between men and women. Mani’s views of marriage and children were of course anathema to the doctrines of the Christian Church and Zoroastrianism.

Manicheans in Rome

Manichaism reached Rome by 280 CE through Mani’s Apostle Psattiq. The movement had already made inroads in Roman-ruled Egypt four decades earlier (in the 240s CE), and by the 290s CE, the Fayumm region of Egypt was heavily influenced by Manicheans. Manichean monasteries were in existence in Rome by the early 4th century CE, during the time of the Christian Pope Miltiades. Emperor Diolectian (284-305 CE) had already issued an edict, stating that the Manicheans be “condemned to the fire with their abominable scriptures”.

“St. Augustine of Hippo in his Study” as portrayed in 1480 by Sandro Botticelli  (Source: Public Domain). Interestingly, St. Augustine had been a Manichean for 9 years until his conversion to Christianity in the aftermath of Emperor Diolectian’s edict (284-305 CE) condemning the Manicheans. Despite his conversion, it is believed that St. Augustine’s Manichean past influenced his later Christian writings.

Apparently, Diolectian did not succeed in stamping out the Manicheans. Over eight decades after Diolectian, Rome’s Christian community demanded that Emperor Theodosius I (379-395 CE) strip the Manichaeans of all their civil liberties. Theodosius obliged by going further: he issued a decree for the death of Manichaean monks (382 CE). Interestingly, St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism shortly after Theodosius’ declaration. In the same declaration, Theodosius had made the “official” proclamation that Christianity was the only legitimate religion of the Roman Empire.

Emperor Theodosius I (379-395 CE) (Source: Annoyzview) issued a harsh edict ordering Manichean monks to be put to death. Despite such stern measures, Rome’s Christian religion failed to completely stamp out the followers of Mani who apparently gave rise to a number of “heresies”, one of these having been the later Cathars of southern France. 

Creeds influenced by Manicheaism maintained a sporadic existence in Northern Italy, Spain, France, the Balkans, Mesopotamia, Central Asia, Western China, Tibet, India and North Africa, centuries after the death of Mani in Persia.

Map detailing the spread of Manicheaism (Source: Voice of America).

Manicheans in China

It is believed that the Manichean creed had arrived in China by the late 600s CE, however recent archaeological discoveries indicate that Mani’s followers had already arrived by the 550s CE (La Vaissière, Etienne de, “Mani en Chine au VIe siècle.” Journal Asiatique, 293–1, 2005, p. 357–378). Manichaeism adapted to Chinese Buddhism to win over converts. For example the Aramaic Karia (the “call” from world of light to world of darkness to those needing rescue) was equated to the Chinese Guan Yin and Buddhism’s Sanskrit term Avalokitesvara (watching/recognizing worldly wounds).

A depiction of Mani in the Duhuang caves of China; note the “Buddha-like” appearance of this statue (Kaveh Farrokh’s lectures at The University of British Columbia’s Continuing Studies Division , Stanford University’s WAIS 2006 Critical World Problems Conference Presentations on July 30-31, 2006). Mani’s followers often adapted to the local beliefs and traditions of the regions they traveled to in order to win over converts to their religion.

Emperor Xuanzong (712-756) of the Tang dynasty banned local conversions to Manicheanism in 732 CE , but this apparently failed to stem the spread of the creed. Over one century later for example, the Ta-yun Kuang-ming Su region of the metropolis of Chang’An featured a Manichean church as late as the 850s CE. This would helped explain Emperor Wuzong’s (840-846 CE) harsh official edict to slay all Manichean priests (it is is believed that over half of these were killed).

Tang Chinese Emperor Xuanzong (712-756) (Source: Public Domain) issued a decree banning conversions to Manicheanism, but this did little to curb the spread of the religion in China.  This resulted in much harsher measures after Xuanzong, but elements of the movements resurfaced in later Medieval times, notably the Red Turban rebellion in 1351-1368.

Manicheans in Central Asia: Soghdians and Uighur Turks

As the Manicheans spread into Central Asia, they soon adapted to the ideas of the region’s local Iranian-speakers. Manichean deities now morphed into the distinctly Zoroastrian Yazatas such as Pid e Wuzurgih. The spread of Manicheaism in Central Asia was thus also facilitated by numbers of local (Iranian-speaking) Soghdians who had adopted the faith. These most likely played a key role in spreading Manichaeism among Central Asia’s Turkic peoples.

A Kocho manuscript (Source: Voice of America) showing Uighur Manichean priests engaged in writing.

Manicheaism made major inroads among the Uighur Turks. The Uighur ruler, Khagan Boku Tekin (759–780 CE), commissioned a three-day discussion with Manichean preachers in 763 CE. This resulted in the Khagan’s conversion to Manicheaism. Shortly thereafter, high ranking priests were dispatched from the Babylonian headquarters to the Uighur Empire. Manichaeism remained as the Uighur state religion for nearly a century before the collapse of the empire in 840 CE.

The Cathars of Southern France

Manicheaism is believed to have had strong links to the Cathar movement of southern France. The Cathars are known from their presence in the 12-13th centuries CE, however the creed of Mani had arrived into Southern France centuries earlier. Hilary of Poitiers wrote in 354 CE (during Roman rule) that the Manichaean faith had already become a powerful force in Southern Gaul. True or not, the Christian Church would often accuse the Cathars of ”Manichean heresies”. While the Cathars denied charges of Manicheanism, their beliefs indicated otherwise.

Medieval depiction of a dispute between Saint Dominic and the Cathars, also known as the Albigensians (Source: Kaveh Farrokh’s lectures at The University of British Columbia’s Continuing Studies Division). Interestingly, the Cathars denied charges of being Manicheans, yet their belief systems were wholly consistent with Mani’s teachings.

Like Mani, the Cathars Believed that the world had been created by a Satanic demiurge. The Cathars also viewed material existence as evil therefore one must strive to liberate oneself from it to achieve salvation. They also believed in re-incarnation and were vegetarian. The Cathars also believed in the equality of men and women. However (again like Mani) the Cathars rejected the notion of producing children and thus shunned the institution of marriage and family in favor of “living together”.  Cathar Church organization also appears to have had Manichean influence. Persecutions of the Cathars began from 1184, and shortly after they were condemned as heretics by Pope Innocent III (papacy: 1198-1216). The Cathars were completely crushed by the 1260s.

The Paulicians of Armenia

Another sect believed to have had Manichean influence were the Paulicians. This began as a Christian breakaway sect in Armenia and the eastern parts of Byzantine Empire (650-844 CE). The movement was founded by an Armenian named Constantine, who hailed from Paytakaran. The movement was named after a Bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata. The first official Paulician church sprung in Kibossa, Armenia in 660 CE.

Constantine’s studies of the Gospels and the Epistles, resulted in him combining dualistic and Christian beliefs. He believed that the contemporary Church misled the people. Constantine’s solution was to have the Christians return to the “original” Church of Paul. Interestingly, Constantine adopted the name “Silvanus“.

Paulicians being subjected to massacres, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes (Source: Public Domain). Armenian Paulicians were transferred in the hundreds of thousands to Eastern Europe by the Byzantines, a factor which appears to have contributed to the rise of the Bogomils in Bulgaria.

Despite persecutions by the Byzantines and breaking into sectarian rivalry, the Paulicians actually succeeded in establishing an independent state in Tephrike (modern Sivas province, Turkey) by 844 CE. Byzantine Emperor Michael III (r. 842-867 CE) persecuted the Paulicians and killed their leader Karbeas in 863 CE. Persistent Byzantine persecutions of the Paulicians resulted in the latter often siding with the Caliphates. Paulicians for example appear to have fought alongside the Arabs against the Byzantines in the Battle of Lalakon (863 CE). The Byzantine Emperor Constantine V (741–775) finally transferred large numbers of Paulicians to Thrace. Byzantine Emperor Basil I (867–886) abolished the Paulician state of Tephrike in 871 CE, forcing its survivors to flee to Syria and Armenia. The Byzantine transfer of Armenians into Europe continued. Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes (969-976 CE) settled 200,000 Armenian Paulicians in Philipopolis, Thrace (970 CE).

Paulicians who remained in Anatolia were to experience Ottoman persecution in the late 1600s, forcing its survivors to flee into Europe and even across the Danube. Pockets of Paulician communities survived in Eastern Europe as late as the 1870s, notably in Bulgaria, Serbia and Romania. After Russia conquered the Caucasus from Iran (finalized by the Treat of Turkmenchai 1828), Russian troops entering Armenia discovered numbers of Paulicians still practicing their faith in the region.

The Bogomils of Eastern Europe

Another movement believed to be linked to the Manicheans were the Bogomils of the Balkans. As noted previously, Byzantine Emperors Constantine V (741–775) and John I Tzimiskes (969-976 CE) had transferred large numbers of Paulicians to Thrace (recall 200,000 Armenian Paulicians settled in Philipopolis, Thrace in 970 CE). These became Bulgarian speaking, and were known by the Bulgars as the Pavlikiani. It is possible that these same Paulicians became one of the roots of the ensuing Bogomil movement.

The Bogomil movement is generally traced to the time of Peter I of Bulgaria (927-969). The Bogomils themselves are generally described as a Gnostic movement which arose as a reaction against the state-clerical repression of the Byzantine Church. Slavonic sources however claim Bogomil doctrines as Manichean.

The famous fresco of Saint Simeon, same as Serbian Prince Stephan Nemanja (r. 1166-1196) at King’s Church in the Studenica monastery (Source: Public Domain).

Bogomilism was essentially (like the creed of Mani) a dualistic doctrine in which the world is seen as divided by God (Good) and Satan (Evil). God is seen as ruling the Spiritual world with Satan ruling the material world. Like Manicheaism, every material being and manifestation is seen as the work of Satan. The Bogomils were also, in a sense, “anarchists” in that they opposed established government and church, making them somewhat like modern-day anarchists.

The Bogomil movement gained momentum in Eastern Europe by the 1220s, but the creed had already been introduced into the Kievan Rus in 1004, just 25 years after Christianity had been introduced into the region. There are citations of a certain Bishop “Adrian” (1004) followed by Bishop “Dmitri” preaching about the Bogomils (1125). Both the Kiev Rus and Bulgarian churches attempted to repress the Bogomils, but pockets of these may have survived as late as the 16th Century.

Kulin Ban’s plate discovered in Biskupići, near Visoko (Source: Public Domain). Kulin Ban welcomed the Bogomils into Bosnia.

The Bogomils also spread westward from Bulgaria into Serbia, especially in 12th century, where they became known as the Babuni. Serbian prince Stephan Nemanja and the Serbian council were quick to declare declare the Babuni as heretics, and expelled them from Serbia in the 12th century.

The celebration of “Surva” in modern-day Bulgaria. Local lore traces this festival to the Iranian God Zurvan. This folklore system appears to be linked to the Bogomil movement. Interestingly, much of the Surva theology bears parallels with elements of Zurvanism and Zoroastrianism (Picture Source: Surva.org).

The Serbian expulsions however did little to stem the westward spread of the Bogomils. These arrived from Serbia (from where they had been recently expelled) into Bosnia and Dalmatia, where they became known as the Pataranes. The Bosnian King Kulin Ban (1180-1204) welcomed the Pataranes, incurring deep suspicions from the Catholic Church.  Pope Innocent III (papacy: 1198-1216) was especially wary of these Balkan developments from at least 1199. More “converts” into Bogomilism continued, notably the Prince of Herzegovina and the Roman Bishop of Bosnia. Altars and crosses were removed with distinctions between the clergy and Congregation becoming negligible. Alms were also set aside by the followers to support the evangelistic cause of the Bogomils. The successes of the Bogomils in the Balkans may be partly attributed to the local populations’ reaction to the excesses of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

https://www.kavehfarrokh.com/ancient-prehistory-651-a-d/sassanians/mani-forgotten-prophet-of-ancient-persia/

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